PURPOSE: The purpose of the current study was to investigate the relationship between fat-free mass and shot put performance at the beginning of the winter preparation cycle and at the first peak of the season (12 wk later) in well-trained shot-putters using the rotational style. METHODS: Eight national-level shot put athletes followed their individual training programs for a period of 12 wk aiming at the national indoor championship. Shot put performance with the rotational style as well as from the power position was determined before and after this 12 wk period. Body composition was determined before and after the training period with dual x-ray absorptiometry. RESULTS: Shot put from the power position was increased by 3% (P = .03) while shot put with the rotational style was increased by 6.5% (P < .01). Fat-free mass, body fat and bone mineral density were not altered after the training period. The correlation coefficient between fat-free mass and shot put performance from the power position was significant (r = .76 preseason vs r = .66, competition; P < .05). The correlation coefficient between fat-free mass and shot put performance with the rotational style was significant at the beginning of the training period (r = .70, P < .05) but it was decreased to moderate and nonsignificant levels at competition (r = .55, ns). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the increase of fat-free mass might not be the most essential element for competition when the rotational shot put style is involved.

Regular performance of resistance exercise induces an increase in skeletal muscle mass, however, the molecular mechanisms underlying this effect are not yet fully understood. The purpose of the present investigation was to examine acute changes in molecular signalling in response to resistance exercise involving different training volumes. Eight untrained male subjects carried out one, three and five sets of 6 repetition maximum (RM) in leg press exercise in a random order. Muscle biopsies were taken from the vastus lateralis both prior to and 30 min after each training session and the effect on protein signalling was studied. Phosphorylation of Akt was not altered significantly after any of the training protocols, whereas that of the mammalian target of rapamycin was enhanced to a similar extent by training at all three volumes. The phosphorylation of p70S6 kinase (p70(S6k)) was elevated threefold after 3 × 6 RM and sixfold after 5 × 6 RM, while the phosphorylation of S6 was increased 30- and 55-fold following the 3 × 6 RM and 5 × 6 RM exercises, respectively. Moreover, the level of the phosphorylated form of the gamma isoform of p38 MAPK was enhanced three to fourfold following each of the three protocols, whereas phosphorylation of ERK1/2 was unchanged 30 min following exercise. These findings indicate that when exercise is performed in a fasted state, the increase in phosphorylation of signalling molecules such as p70(S6k) and the S6 ribosomal protein in human muscle depends on the exercise volume.

It is known that non-cachectic patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) respond well to pulmonary rehabilitation, but whether cachectic COPD patients are capable of adaptive responses is both important and unknown. 10 cachectic and 19 non-cachectic COPD patients undertook high-intensity cycling training, at the same relative intensity, for 45 min x day(-1), 3 days x week(-1) for 10 weeks. Before and after rehabilitation vastus lateralis muscle biopsies were analysed morphologically and for the expression of muscle remodelling factors (insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, myogenic differentiation factor D (MyoD), tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB and myostatin) and key components of ubiquitin-mediated proteolytic systems (muscle ring finger protein (MURF)-1 and Atrogin-1). Rehabilitation improved peak work-rate and the 6-min walk distance similarly in non-cachectic (18+/-3% and 42+/-13 m, respectively) and cachectic (16+/-2% and 53+/-16 m, respectively) patients, but quality of life only improved in non-cachectic COPD. Mean muscle fibre cross-sectional area increased in both groups, but significantly less in cachectic (7+/-2%) than in non-cachectic (11+/-2%) patients. Both groups equally decreased the proportion of type IIb fibres and increased muscle capillary/fibre ratio. IGF-I mRNA expression increased in both groups, but IGF-I protein levels increased more in non-cachectic COPD. MyoD was upregulated, whereas myostatin was downregulated at the mRNA and protein level only in non-cachectic patients. Whilst rehabilitation had no effect on TNF-alpha expression, it decreased the activation of the transcription factor NF-kappaB in both groups by the same amount. Atrogin-1 and MURF-1 expression were increased in cachectic COPD, but it was decreased in non-cachectic patients. Cachectic COPD patients partially retain the capacity for peripheral muscle remodelling in response to rehabilitation and are able to increase exercise capacity as much as those without cachexia, even if they exhibit both quantitative and qualitative differences in the type of muscle fibre remodelling in response to exercise training.

Aim of the present study was to describe the muscle fibre type composition and body composition of well-trained hammer throwers. Six experienced hammer throwers underwent the following measurements: one repetition maximum in squat, snatch, and clean, standing broad jump, backward overhead shot throw and the hammer throw. Dual x-ray absorptiometry was used for body composition analysis. Fibre type composition and cross sectional area was determined in muscle biopsy samples of the right vastus lateralis. Eight physical education students served as a control group. One repetition maximum in squat, snatch and clean for the hammer throwers was 245 ± 21, 132 ± 13 and 165 ± 12kg, respectively. Lean body mass was higher in hammer throwers (85.9 ± 3. 9kg vs. 62.7 ± 5.1kg (p < 0.01). The percentage area of type II muscle fibres was 66.1 ± 4% in hammer throwers and 51 ± 8% in the control group (p < 0.05). Hammer throwers had significantly larger type IIA fibres (7703 ± 1171 vs. 5676 ± 1270μm(2), p < 0.01). Hammer throwing performance correlated significantly with lean body mass (r = 0.81, p < 0.05). These data indicate that hammer throwers have larger lean body mass and larger muscular areas occupied by type II fibres, compared with relatively untrained subjects. Moreover, it seems that the enlarged muscle mass of the hammer throwers contributes significantly to the hammer throwing performance. Key pointsWell-trained hammer throwers had increased lean body mass, higher type IIA muscle fibres cross sectional areas, as well as higher bone mineral density, compared to controls.Increased lean body mass was closely related with hammer throwing performance.The relative high percentage of type IIX muscle fibres in vastus lateralis in hammer throwers warrants further investigation.