Abstract:

Karst caves preserve complex morphologies that reflect long-term landscape evolution while also presenting significant challenges for documentation and stability assessment. This study develops and applies an integrated workflow that combines multi-sensor close-range remote sensing equipment and techniques, to produce high-resolution 3D models of two of the most popular show caves in Greece. The combined datasets enabled the construction of detailed geomorphological maps and a quantitative description of the cave interiors, including the spatial distribution of speleothems. Because manual counting and measurement of speleothems is often impractical, a semi-automatic procedure was implemented based on geometric feature extraction, morphometric filtering and connected-component segmentation. The method reproduced manual counts accurately in areas where speleothems are well separated, and it also captured dense clusters that are difficult to document visually. The structural configuration of both caves was examined through fracture analysis performed directly on the 3D models, and these structural data were incorporated into three-dimensional distinct element simulations to evaluate potential instability mechanisms. The combined geomorphological and mechanical results demonstrate how multi-sensor 3D mapping can support cave management by providing a basis for hazard assessment and establishing a framework suitable for future multi-temporal monitoring.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2026.110280