Publications

2024
Nonorthodox Economic Approaches to Labor Unions and Union Leadership. In: Encyclopedia of Diversity, Equity, Inclusion and Spirituality. Springer; 2024. Publisher's VersionAbstract
Ideas concerning the role, function, and nature of labor unions and their leadership can be found in 19th century economics literature. Even since this early period, a division between orthodox and non-orthodox approaches toward the study of labor unions can be discerned.  The orthodox framework was formed in the late 19th century with the gradual establishment of Marginalism, and it consolidated itself with the dominance of early neoclassical economics. Orthodox economic theory did not devote much attention to the economic analysis of unions. On the contrary and during the same period, non-orthodox economists such as Sidney and Beatrice Webb and early institutionalists (e.g. Richard Ely), had paid considerable attention to the study of unions, perceiving them as politico-economic organizations and emphasizing their wider role as social institutions (McNulty, 1980). The legacy of those two approaches continued in the 20th century and contemporary analyses of labor unions. The orthodox approach (originating mainly from the work of John Dunlop), generally conceives unions as purely economic units, analogous to firms, which can be studied by applying the standard tools of microeconomic theory. In this framework, the notion of union leadership plays a minimum role. In contrast, the non-orthodox viewpoint (originating mainly from Arthur Ross’ works), embraces a holistic, institutional-political-based attitude to labor unionism (Kaufman, 2002).
Drakopoulos S, Katselidis I. Economics and Psychology: An Uneasy History. London: Routledge; 2024. Publisher's Version
Value Judgements, Positivism and Utility Comparisons in Economics. Journal of Business Ethics [Internet]. 2024;189(3):423-437. Publisher's VersionAbstract
The issue of interpersonal comparisons of utility is about the possibility (or not) of comparing the utility or welfare or the mental states in general, of different individuals. Embedded in the conceptual framework of utilitarianism, interpersonal comparisons were admissible in economics as part of the theoretical justification of welfare policies until the first decades of the twentieth century. Under the strong influence of the scientific philosophy of positivism as reflected in the works of early neoclassical economists and as epitomized by Lionel Robbins, utility comparisons were subsequently rejected as a value judgement. Robbins’ methodological stance is still prevalent among mainstream economists. Despite the explicit rejection of comparability by the majority of economists, interpersonal comparisons are necessary for many key policy issues, such as progressive taxation, social welfare policies, GDP-based welfare comparisons, cost–benefit analysis, and public goods provision. In this paper, the case of interpersonal utility comparisons is discussed as an illustrative example of the usefulness of the study of the role of value judgements, and generally of the interrelationship between ethics and economics. It is argued that the current tension between theory and policy practice might be resolved through the efforts of prominent economists and philosophers to challenge positivism, and especially its problematic treatment of value judgements and of ethical assumptions in general. The discussion also provides more strength to the view that policy makers and their economic advisers cannot avoid ethical questions in their analysis of the workings of the economic system
2023
Εισαγωγή στις αρχές της Σύγχρονης Οικονομικής, Β έκδοση. 2nd ed. Αθήνα: Παπαζήσης; 2023. Publisher's VersionAbstract
Πρωταρχικός στόχος αυτού του βιβλίου είναι η παρουσίαση βασικών θεμάτων της Οικονομικής Επιστήμης με όσο το δυνατόν απλό αλλά ακριβή και επιστημονικό τρόπο. Είναι γραμμένο σε εισαγωγικό επίπεδο και είναι προϊόν εμπειρίας πολλών ετών διδασκαλίας σε προπτυχιακούς φοιτητές που δεν είχαν διδαχθεί οικονομικά σε αυτό το επίπεδο. Τα πρώτα επτά κεφάλαια (κεφάλαιο 1 μέχρι και κεφάλαιο 7) εξετάζουν θεμελιώδη ζητήματα Μικροοικονομικής και τα επόμενα έξι κεφάλαια εξετάζουν θεμελιώδη ζητήματα Μακροοικονομικής (κεφάλαιο 8 μέχρι και κεφάλαιο 13). Σε κάθε κεφάλαιο περιγράφονται οι μαθησιακοί στόχοι και παρουσιάζονται οι έννοιες-κλειδιά. Το επίπεδο ανάλυσης δεν προϋποθέτει γνώσεις οικονομικών, αλλά εισάγει τον οικονομικό τρόπο σκέψης με χρήση συγκεκριμένων παραδειγμάτων και διαγραμμάτων τα οποία διευκολύνουν την κατανόηση των οικονομικών φαινομένων. Η δε μαθηματική ανάλυση περιορίζεται εκεί όπου είναι απολύτως αναγκαία. Σε αρκετές περιπτώσεις υπάρχουν αριθμητικά παραδείγματα-ασκήσεις που δείχνουν τον τρόπο εφαρμογής των θεωρητικών εννοιών. Με τα δεδομένα αυτά το βιβλίο δεν προορίζεται μόνο για φοιτητές οικονομικών σχολών, αλλά απευθύνεται και σε φοιτητές άλλων συγγενών ή λιγότερο συγγενών πεδίων, όπου τα εισαγωγικά οικονομικά θεωρούνται χρήσιμες γνώσεις. Προφανώς, μπορεί να χρησιμεύσει και σε κάθε ενδιαφερόμενο αναγνώστη που επιθυμεί να κατανοήσει βασικές οικονομικές έννοιες και επίκαιρες οικονομικές συζητήσεις.

Book Review of Susumu Egashira, Masanori Taishido, D. Wade Hands and Uskali Maki (editors) (2021), A Genealogy of Self-Interest in Economics, Singapore: Springer.

Erasmus Journal for Philosophy and Economics [Internet]. 2023;16(1). Publisher's Version

Post-Keynesian Economics: New Foundations by Marc Lavoie Chapter 2: Theory of Choice

. Review of Political Economy [Internet]. 2023;35(4):1034-1044. Publisher's VersionAbstract
This work presents and discusses chapter two of Marc Lavoie’s book Post-Keynesian Economics: New Foundations. It begins by analysing the concepts of uncertainty and rationality which are extremely important for the post Keynesian approach, and for economic theorizing in general. The notions of fundamental uncertainty and the closely related concept of procedural rationality, are employed in order to build the foundations of a theory of household choice. It proceeds by investigating the repercussions of the theory in a lexicographic/hierarchical analytical framework. In this framework, groups consume different goods depending on their respective needs, income effects are more important than substitution effects, and price competition has a secondary role. It is also shown that Lavoie’s approach does not only draw from the work of Keynes and other major post-Keynesian theorists, but also utilizes contributions from other strands of heterodox economics, thus providing an agenda for a possible theoretical synthesis.

Economic Policy and the History of Economic Thought

. (Drakopoulos S, Katselidis I). London: Routledge; 2023. Publisher's VersionAbstract
This book discusses key issues in economic policy in the context of the history of economic thought. Most of the current and past academic controversies in economics are, explicitly or implicitly, centred around the application and form of economic policy. This is particularly evident in the post-WWII period, with the appearance of economic policy as a distinguishable subfield, but important elements of various economic policy issues can be found throughout the history of economic thought. This book discusses various topics in economic policy – such as questions over state spending and taxation, income redistribution, and the role of money – with each chapter focusing on a particular period or major school of economic thought ranging from the ‘prehistory’ of economics up to the present day. Specific chapters of the volume cover the main schools of economic thought from different national and theoretical traditions, incorporating mercantilism, the Physiocratic School, the German Historical School, Marxism, the Austrian School, institutional economics, Keynesian economics, behavioural economics and more.
The Conceptual Resilience of the Atomistic Individual in Mainstream Economic Rationality. Review of Political Economy. 2023.Abstract
Τhe idea that social influences and social interactions play a central role on individual economic decisions has had a long presence in the history of economics. With the emergence of marginalism, this idea went into background and the concept of atomistic individual became established in mainstream economic rationality. Starting in the 1970’s, there were some attempts to reintroduce non-atomistic preferences in mainstream microeconomic theory in the form of social interactions, interdependent preferences, keeping up with the Joneses, social identity, social preferences, and status concerns. Social preferences have started to have a growing impact among mainstream microeconomics with the advent of behavioral economics, but still they are not in the hard core of the standard theory of choice. The paper argues that atomistic preferences are still prevalent, especially in the form of the assumption of representative agent. It also focuses on the role of methodological individualism and on the theoretical implications of relaxing the assumption of atomistic individual, as main explanations of the resilience of the mainstream economic rationality.
2022
Drakopoulos SA. The Relation of Neoclassical Economics to other Disciplines: the case of Physics and Psychology. In: Economic Methodology, History and Pluralism Expanding Economic Thought to Meet Contemporary Challenges Edited By Ioana Negru, Penelope Hawkins. Routledge; 2022.
2021
Drakopoulos SA. Book Review of Robert Skidelsky (2020), What’s Wrong with Economics: A Primer for the Perplexed. History of Economic Ideas [Internet]. 2021;29(1):193-196. Publisher's Version
Drakopoulos SA. The Marginalization of Absolute and Relative Income Hypotheses of Consumption and the Role of Fiscal Policy. European Journal of the History of Economic Thought. 2021;28(6):965-984.Abstract
Abstract Contrary to Keynes’ and Duesenberry’s consumption theories, absolute or relative income plays a minimal role in the life-cycle and in the permanent-income hypotheses. It plays an even lesser role in contemporary orthodox consumption functions which are extensions of these two theories in a rational-expectations framework. As a result, the theoretical effectiveness of fiscal policy for raising output is greatly diminished. The paper argues that Keynes’ and Duesenberry’s approaches were marginalised not because of their empirical or theoretical shortcomings, but because of emphasising the psychological and social influences on consumption patterns, and because of not employing the intertemporal utility maximising framework.
Drakopoulos SA. Theories of consumption. In: An Introduction to Macroeconomics A Heterodox Approach to Economic Analysis. Chentelham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing; 2021. pp. 233-267. Publisher's Version
2019
Drakopoulos SA. Value Neutrality in the History of Economics (Η Αξιολογική Ουδετερότητα στην Ιστορία της Οικονομικής. Neusis Review of the History and Philosophy of Science . 2019;26:5-24.
Drakopoulos SA, Katselidis I. Classical and Pre- Marginalist Ideas on the Relationship between Economics and Psychology. History of Economic Ideas. 2019;28:43–63.
2018
Drakopoulos SA. Introduction to Contemporary Economics. Athens: Papazisis; 2018.
2017
Drakopoulos S, Grimani K. Labor earnings reductions, happiness levels and needs hierarchy. International Journal of Wellbeing. 2017;7.
Drakopoulos SA, Katselidis I. The Relationship between Psychology and Economics: Insights from the History of Economic Thought. 2017.
2016
Drakopoulos SA. Economic crisis, economic methodology and the scientific ideal of physics. The Journal of Philosophical Economics. 2016;10(1).Abstract
The methodological foundations of mainstream economics have been cited as one of the main reasons for its failure to account for the economic crisis of 2008. In spite of this, the status of economic methodology has not been elevated. It is argued that this is due to the persistent aversion towards methodological discourse by most mainstream economists. This attitude has a long presence as exemplified in Frank Hahn’s (1992) work. After focusing on the debate originating after the publication of Hahn’s arguments, the paper offers a categorization of the main explanations for mainstream methodological aversion. Subsequently, it suggests an explanation based on the role of the physics scientific ideal, arguing that the endeavour to achieve the high scientific status of physics by following the methods of physics, contributed to the negative mainstream attitude towards economic methodology. The relevant writings of the extremely influential mainstream economists Irwin Fisher and Milton Friedman, reinforce the assertion that the alleged hard science status of economics renders methodological discussions and especially methodological criticism, rather pointless. The paper also calls for a more systematic discussion of this issue, especially in the wake of the line of argument that links the recent failings of mainstream to its methodological basis
Grimani K, Drakopoulos S. The Relationship between Absence from Work & Job Satisfaction in Greece. 2016.
Drakopoulos SA, Theodossiou I. Workers’ risk underestimation and occupational health and safety regulation. European journal of law and economics. 2016;41:641–656.
Drakopoulos SA. Comparisons in economic thought: Economic interdependency reconsidered. London: Routledge; 2016.
2015
Drakopoulos S. Book Review: On the Role of Paradigms in Finance, by Kavous Ardalan, Ashgate, Aldershot, UK., 2008, Pp 176. South-Eastern Europe Journal of Economics. 2015;7.
Drakopoulos S, Grimani K. The Effect of Pay Cuts on Psychological Well-Being and Job Satisfaction. In: Job Satisfaction: Determinants, Workplace Implications and Impacts on Psychological Well-Being. R. Osbourne (ed.) Nova Science Publ., New York; 2015.
Drakopoulos SA. Book Review: The Prosperity of Vice: A Worried View of Economics by D. Cohen, 2012. 2015.
Drakopoulos SA. The physics scientific ideal in the works of Edgeworth and Fisher. In: Essays in Contemporary Economics. Springer, Cham; 2015. pp. 31–43.
Drakopoulos S, Katselidis I. From Edgeworth to econophysics: a methodological perspective. Journal of Economic Methodology. 2015;22:77–95.
Drakopoulos S, Gkotsis G, Grimani A. METHODOLOGY OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SCIENCES.; 2015.
2013
Drakopoulos SA, Grimani K. Injury-related absenteeism and job satisfaction: insights from Greek and UK data. The International Journal of Human Resource Management. 2013;24:3496–3511.
Drakopoulos SA, Grimani K. Maslow’s needs hierarchy and the effect of income on happiness levels. In: The Happiness Compass: Theories, Actions and Perspectives for Well-Being,. New York: Nova Science; 2013.
2012
Drakopoulos SA. Εισόδημα, Ευτυχία και Ιεράρχηση Ανθρωπίνων Αναγκών. In: Δώρημα Ευχαριστήριον: Τιμητικός Τόμος Πέτρου Γέμτου. Vol. 1. 1st ed. Athens: Εκδ. Α. Σάκκουλα; 2012. Publisher's Version
Drakopoulos SA. Anastassios Karayiannis (1955-2012): Academic Economist and Scholar. HISTORY OF ECONOMIC THOUGHT AND POLICY. 2012;2:185–91.
Drakopoulos SA. Hierarchical needs, income comparisons, and happiness levels. In: A positive psychology perspective on quality of life, Efklides A., Moraitou D. (eds). Springer, Dordrecht; 2012. pp. 17–32.
Drakopoulos SA. THE HISTORY OF ATTITUDES TOWARDS INTERDEPENDENT PREFERENCES. Journal of the History of Economic Thought (Cambridge University Press). 2012;34.
Drakopoulos SA. Professor Anastassios Karayiannis: an obituary. History of Economic Ideas. 2012:25–28.
Drakopoulos SA, Economou A, Grimani A. A Survey of Safety and Health at Work in Greece. International Journal of Workplace Health Management. 2012;5:56–70.
2011
Drakopoulos S. Income and Happiness. In: The world Book of Happiness. Lannoo; 2011.
Brenner HM, Andreeva E, Drakopoulos S, Edenharter G, Laurijssen E, Mihályi P, Theodossiou I, Theorell T, Triomphe CE. Development of Macro Level Indicators of Restructuring and Workers' Health. 2011.
Drakopoulos SA. Economic policies, political considerations and overall health. Economic Analysis and Policy. 2011;41:273–286.
Gotsis G, Drakopoulos S. The economics of the early Christian rhetoric: the case of the Second Petrine Epistle of the New Testament. History of Economic Ideas. 2011:17–54.
Drakopoulos SA. Wicksteed, Robbins and the Emergence of Mainstream Economic Methodology. Review of Political Economy. 2011;23:461–470.
Drakopoulos SA, Lakioti E, Theodossiou I. Childhood socioeconomic deprivation and later adulthood health. International Journal of Social Economics. 2011;38:23–38.
Drakopoulos SA. The neglect of comparison income: An historical perspective. The European Journal of the History of Economic Thought. 2011;18:441–464.
2009
Drakopoulos SA. Book Review: “On the Role of Paradigms in Finance”, K. Ardalan, 2008, Aldershot, UK. Ashgate. Southern Eastern European Journal of Economics. 2009;2:257–259.
Drakopoulos SA. Recessions, Economic Policy and Health Inequalities. In: Proceedings of the EURO-Mini Conference. Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Department of Construction Economics …; 2009. pp. 318.
2008
Drakopoulos SA, Theodossiou I, Drakopoulou-Dodd S. Gender discrimination and institutional frameworks: Evidence from four european union countries. International Journal of Economic Sciences and Applied Research. 2008;1.
Drakopoulos SA. The paradox of happiness: towards an alternative explanation. Journal of Happiness Studies. 2008;9:303–315.
2007
Karayiannis AD, Drakopoulos SA. The Paradox of Happiness: Evidence from the Late Pre-Classical and Classical Economic Thought. Storia del Pensiero Economico. 2007:1000–1019.
Drakopoulos S, Karayiannis A. Human needs hierarchy and happiness: evidence from the late pre-classical and classical economics. In: Handbook on the Economics of Happiness. ; 2007. pp. 53.
Drakopoulos S. Comparison wage in trade union decision making. Acta Oeconomica. 2007;57:377–388.
2006
Drakopoulos SA, Karayiannis A. The conceptual roots of work effort in pre-classical and classical economic thought. Archives of Economic History. 2006;18:27–44.
Drakopoulos SA, Economou A, Nikolaou A, Theodossiou I. The case of Greece. In: Are the Healthier Wealthier or the Wealthier Healthier? The European Experience”. Helsinki: ETLA; 2006. Publisher's Version
2005
Drakopoulos SA, Karayiannis A. A Review of Kuhnian and Lakatosian “Explanations” in Economics. History of Economic Ideas. 2005;13:51–73.
2004
Drakopoulos S, Gotsis GN. A Meta-theoretical Assessment of the Decline of Scholastic Economics. History of Economics Review. 2004;40:19–45.
Drakopoulos SA. SATISFICING AND SEQUENTIAL TARGETS IN ECONOMIC POLICY: A POLITICO-ECONOMIC APPROACH. Contributions to Political Economy. 2004;23:49–64.
Drakopoulos SA, Karayiannis AD. The historical development of hierarchical behavior in economic thought. Journal of the History of Economic Thought. 2004;26:363–378.
2001
Drakopoulos SA. Rationality and Economics: The Model of Ηomo Economicus (in Greek). Neusis Review of the History and Philosophy of Science. 2001;10:129-142.
2000
Drakopoulos SA. Aspiration wage and union bargaining. DISCUSSION PAPER-UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS. 2000.
Drakopoulos SA, Theodossiou I. Hierarchical Choice and Wine Consumption. University of Aberdeen Discussion Paper. 2000.
1999
Drakopoulos SA. Post-Keynesian choice theory. Encyclopedia of political economy. 1999;2:887–889.
Drakopoulos SA, Karayiannis A. Mainstream Consumer Theory: Delay, Acceptance and History Texts. History of Economics Review. 1999;30:68–71.
Drakopoulos SA, Karayiannis AD. Towards an economic approach to imperfect meritocracy. Bulletin of Economic Research. 1999;51:151–162.
1998
Drakopoulos S, SK{\AA}TUN JOHNDOUGLAS. The impact of fringe benefits on payment profiles. Research in Economics. 1998;52:81–99.
Drakopoulos SA. Book review: History of Economic Thought:The Pre-Classical Period by A. D. Karayiannis, 1998. HISTORY OF ECONOMICS REVIEW. 1998:150–150.
Drakopoulos S. The concept of orders of instruments and goods in J. Rae and C. Menger. In: The Economics of John Rae, Edited By Omar Hamouda, C. Lee, Douglas Mair. Routledge; 1998. pp. 66–72.
1997
Drakopoulos SA. Hedonism and Economics from The Reappearance of Hedonism and Its Introduction to Economics. INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY OF CRITICAL WRITINGS IN ECONOMICS. 1997;83:19–37.
Drakopoulos SA, Sk{\aa}tun JDF. Altruism, union utility and outsiders. Journal of Economic Studies. 1997.
Drakopoulos SA, others. Modelling Menger’s Consumer Theory. Ekonomia. 1997;1:82–96.
Drakopoulos SA, Theodossiou I. Job satisfaction and target earnings. Journal of Economic Psychology. 1997;18:693–704.
Drakopoulos SA. Origins and development of the trend toward value-free economics. Journal of the History of Economic Thought. 1997;19:286–300.
1996
Drakopoulos SA. Book Review: Adam Smith's discourse: Canonicity, commerce and conscience by Brown, V. 1994, Routledge. SCOTTISH JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY. 1996;43:128–128.
Drakopoulos S, Skaatun JD. Payment profiles when fringe benefits are durable public goods. DISCUSSION PAPER-UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS. 1996.
1995
Drakopoulos SA, of Economics; AU(UK). D. Union wage aspirations, taxes and fringe benefits. 1995.
Drakopoulos SA. Towards a Hierarchical Approach to Trade Union Behaviour. Economic Notes. 1995;25:47–56.
1994
Drakopoulos SA. Economic method and the scientific philosophy of contemporary physics. Journal of Interdisciplinary Economics. 1994;5:37–53.
Drakopoulos SA. Book Review: Economic growth and the balance-of-payments contraint, by By MCCOMBIE (J. S. L) and (A. P) Thirlwall, (1993), Macmillan 1993. The Economic Journal. 1994;104.
Drakopoulos SA, of of J. Skatun UADE. Taxes and fringe benefits in a contracting framework. 1994.
Drakopoulos S. Trade Union Priorities and Wage Rigidity. Labour. 1994;8:567–580.
Drakopoulos SA, of Economics; AU(UK). D. Trade Union Status, Employment Effects and Wage Rigidity. 1994.
Drakopoulos SA, Torrance TS. Causality and determinism in economics. Scottish Journal of Political Economy. 1994;41:176–193.
Drakopoulos S. Economic method and the scientific philosophy of contemporary physics. South African Journal of Economics. 1994;62:198–209.
Drakopoulos SA. A note on the substitution between wage and non-wage benefits in spot labour markets. Economics Letters. 1994;45:495–499.
Drakopoulos SA. Hierarchical choice in economics. Journal of Economic Surveys. 1994;8:133–153.
1992
Drakopoulos SA. Book Review: ECONOMIC-THEORIES, TRUE OR FALSE-(ESSAYS IN THE HISTORY AND METHODOLOGY OF ECONOMICS), by BLAUG, M (1990), Edward Elgar. 1992.
Drakopoulos SA. A behavioural approach to kinked demand curves. Cyprus Journal of Economics. 1992;5.
Drakopoulos SA, of Economics; AU(UK). D. Satisficing and Macroeconomic Policy Design: An Extension to Mosley's Approach. 1992.
Drakopoulos SA, Theodossiou I. A Kaldorian approach to Greek economic growth: a reply. Applied Economics. 1992;24:1360–1361.
Drakopoulos SA. Keynes ‘Economic Thought and the Theory of Consumer Behaviour. Scottish Journal of Political Economy. 1992;39:318–336.
Drakopoulos SA. Psychological thresholds, demand and price rigidity. The Manchester School. 1992;60:152–168.
Drakopoulos SA, Theodossiou I, of Economics; AU(UK). D. Utility from Work and Priority Target Setting Behaviour. University of Aberdeen Discussion Paper. 1992.
1991
Drakopoulos SA, Theodossiou I. Kaldorian approach to Greek economic growth. Applied Economics. 1991;23:1683–1689.
Drakopoulos SA. Values and economic theory: The case of hedonism. Avebury Aldershot; 1991.
Drakopoulos SA. Hierarchical behaviour in economics. University of Aberdeen Discussion paper. 1991.
1990
Drakopoulos SA. Economic Method and Contemporary Physical Science Epistemology. University of Aberdeen, Department of Economics; 1990.
Drakopoulos SA. Two levels of hedonistic influence on microeconomic theory. Scottish Journal of Political Economy. 1990;37:360–378.
Drakopoulos SA, others. The implicit psychology of the theory of the rational consumer: an interpretation. Australian Economic Papers. 1990;29:182–198.
Drakopoulos SA, of Economics; AU(UK). D. Threshold based demand and product market clearing. University of Aberdeen Discussion Paper. 1990.
1989
Drakopoulos SA. The Implicit Psychology of the Rational Consumer: An Interpretation. Department of Political Economy, University of Glasgow; 1989.
Drakopoulos SA. The historical perspective of the problem of interpersonal comparisons of utility. Journal of Economic Studies. 1989;16:35–51.
Drakopoulos SA. The influence of hedonism on the formation of economic theory. University of Stirling, Economics Dept. [Internet]. 1989. Publisher's Version
1987
Drakopoulos SA. Modern Physics and Mainstream Economic Methodology. University of Stirling Discussion paper. 1987.