Biophysical restoration or rehabilitation measures of land have demonstrated to be effective in many scientific projects and small-scale environmental experiments. However circumstances such as poverty, weak policies, or inefficient scientific knowledge transmission can hinder the effective upscaling of land restoration and the long term maintenance of proven sustainable use of soil and water. This may be especially worrisome in lands with harsh environmental conditions. This review covers recent efforts in landscape restoration and rehabilitation with a functional perspective aiming to simultaneously achieve ecosystem sustainability, economic efficiency, and social wellbeing. Water management and rehabilitation of ecosystem services in croplands, rangelands, forests, and coastlands are reviewed. The joint analysis of such diverse ecosystems provides a wide perspective to determine: (i) multifaceted impacts on biophysical and socio-economic factors; and (ii) elements influencing effective upscaling of sustainable land management practices. One conclusion can be highlighted: voluntary adoption is based on different pillars, i.e. external material and economic support, and spread of success information at the local scale to demonstrate the multidimensional benefits of sustainable land management. For the successful upscaling of land management, more attention must be paid to the social system from the first involvement stage, up to the long term maintenance.

Fossil shorelines produced by recent co-seismic movements were identified through a submarine survey along the coasts of Ithaca and Fiscardo (Greece). In both areas a tidal notch-slightly submerged below present Mean Sea Level (MSL) was observed at various sites. This “modern” notch is known to have been submerged by the global sea-level rise during the 19th and 20th centuries. The depth after tide and air-pressure correction of the vertex of the “modern” notch (that owes its submergence to the current rapid sea level rise) was measured between -20 and -30±5cm at Fiscardo and between -36 and -45±6cm at Ithaca. This “modern” notch at the same depth on east and west sides of the Ionian Thrust suggests that both areas were not affected by the co-seismic vertical movements that occurred in 1953 (in the wider area). On the other hand, a greater depth in Ithaca could be an effect of co-seismic subsidence. Over the long term, the tectonic behavior of Ithaca differs from Fiscardo. At Ithaca no evidence of emergence was found and Holocene vertical movements have been only of subsidence: submerged fossil tidal notches were distinguished below MSL at about -40 (modern), -60, -75, -95, -106, -126, -150 and -220±6cm. On the East coast of Fiscardo peninsula impacts of ancient earthquakes have left some marks of emergence at about +18 and +44±5cm, and of submergence at about -25 (modern), -45, -60, -75, -82, -100 and -230cm, with even some evidence of past uplift and subsidence at the same sites.

In this paper a re-analysis of previous research concerning an uplifted tidal notch developed near the modern harbor of Poros (eastern Cephalonia Island, Ionian Sea, Greece) is undertaken. According to radiocarbon dating, this notch was active between the 4th–6th century AD and 1953 AD, i.e. for at least 1450 years. Recent measurements have shown that the inward depth of the notch profile at well preserved sites is 93 cm. This permits an estimate of the average rate of intertidal bioerosion to 0.64 mm/a for this time period.

Beachrocks represents a coastal deposition in the intertidal area, and studying their properties may lead to create a model which identifies the conditions of their formation (paleo-environment). This paper focuses most intently on the cement material which is able to recover the paleo-environment conditions during diagenesis of such coastal sediment. We used optical microscopy, secondary electron microscopy and Raman Spectroscopy to characterize the cement texture, mineralogy and chemistry in the beachrocks. The existence of pure calcite primarily controlled by the meteorite water, while Mg-calcite appears between the lower meteoric and the upper marine phreatic zone. Finally, the presence of aragonite associated with the marine phreatic to lower marine vadose environment.

Sea level indicators, such as tidal notches and beachrocks, may provide valuable information for the relative sea level changes of an area. Beachrocks in particular have received various arguments concerning their use as reliable sea level indicators and their formation environment. This work focuses on the coasts of East Attica in order to trace the palaeoshorelines of the Upper Holocene through the study of beachrocks. The coastal zone was surveyed in detail by snorkelling and diving, in order to locate, map and sample beachrocks. The samples were studied under a SEM, which showed that the beachrocks are mainly composed of quartz grains, a few calcites and feldspars, while the carbonate cement is characterized with the presence of MgO at percentages between 5 and 7.8%. Based on correlations with published drillings in the study area, the studied beachrocks should not be older than 2000 years BP.

The study "3,000 Years of East Mediterranean Sea Levels" investigates whether trends observed during this period in Israel from archaeological indications can be corroborated and strengthened by comparing them with relative sea levels observed in Greece. The process is comprised of three questions: 1) What types of archaeological sea-level indicators in Greece and Israel have the highest level of reliability for dating and sea-level evaluation? 2) What are the overall trends of sea-level change in Greece and Israel during the last 3,000 years, and what degree of error do these curves have? 3) What if any regional trends can be identified from the combined Greek and Israeli data? To answer the above questions, three objectives are pursued: 1) Identify archaeological RSL indicators of the last 3,000 years in Israel and Greece, including already published indicators with adequate measurements, those published but in need of new measurements, and unpublished potential indicators. 2) Assess the reliability of indicators using a consistent scoring system, correction for isostatic and tectonic effects, more precise measurements from indicators, and by exploring new methods to determine the chronology of rock carved indicators in Israel. 3) Using the assembled data, create a sea-level reconstruction for Greece, and combine the data with existing reconstructions from Israel for an analysis of matching trends. The study began with research of published sources and was supplemented by field activity. Surveys in Greece including Crete to assess both published and potential indicators occurred. Ruins from Chersonisos and Matala in Crete were examined and new measurements were taken from the latter. Fieldwork was also performed in Israel, including measurements from Caesarea for functional elevations on water channels at the promontory palace pool, at Achziv's fishpond, and around Tel Dor. The survey collected nearly 140 indicators from Israel and about 120 from Greece (excluding those outside the project's chronological scope). Of the Israeli indicators, some 120 were deemed reliable enough for reconstructions, whereas in Greece only 40 were, and not all of these from tectonically stable areas. The higher reliability of the Israeli dataset may stem from a smaller coastline and more focused sea-level research over the past few decades. In Greece, many measurements were taken by archaeologists in the 20th century before precise surveying methods were available, and published without sufficient metadata. Since then some of the sites have also become inaccessible to sea-level researchers. Analysis of indicators revealed gaps and disparities between the two regional datasets. Israel has a very strong set of many indicators from the Roman Period (~2000BP) to present, but fewer from 3000-2000BP. Greek indicators are strongly clustered in the Classical and Hellenistic Periods (2500-2000BP) with fewer before or after. These disparities make it difficult to effectively compare sea level between regions, but results suggest some correspondence of the curves. Analysis supports the work of previous Israeli researchers and suggests a relatively stable sea level there for the last 2000 years, with possible fluctuations not exceeding half a meter above or below current sea level at ~1500BP and ~750BP respectively. Both regions indicate a sea level rise between 2500-2000BP, but more data from Israel is needed to confirm this, while data from 3000-2500BP in Israel and Greece alike is scarce. In addition to the overall regional RSL comparisons, the current study also identifies the need for ongoing research and data collection: Continuing the search for sea-level indicators in Israel from 3000-2000BP, and in Greece from 3000-2500BP and from 2000BP to present, particularly in areas of reported tectonic stability like the Cyclades.

The littoral region of Alexandria, east of Silsileh (the eastern promontory of the Eastern Harbor) to Montazah promontory was investigated combining archaeological and geomorphological evidence in order to better understand the subsidence of the coastal zone. The coastal zone is rich in archaeological and geomorphological features able to provide insights into the evolution of the coastline and the relative sea level changes. Our study has revealed a continuous subsidence of the coastal zone, owed to various contributing processes, while further research is required to decipher the coastal evolution of this littoral.

The last 3,000 years of relative sea level (RSL) in Israel are derived primarily from archaeological indicators with additional bio-construction indicators (Dendropoma petraeum reefs at the edge of the abrasion platform along the Israeli coast). The current study examines whether sea-level fluctuations (above and mainly below present-day MSL) observed along the coast of Israel can also be observed in other East Mediterranean areas like Greece so that better evaluations can be made of local and regional driving mechanisms. There are three objectives for achieving this goal: 1) Identify new and already published archaeological and biological RSL indicators from this period in Israel and Greece; 2) Assess the reliability of both existing and new indicators using consistent standards to determine which types most accurately indicate ancient RSL and with what degree of uncertainty; 3) Correct the data for isostatic and tectonic effects. The survey collected nearly 140 archaeological indicators from Israel and about 120 from Greece. Of the Israeli indicators, some 120 were deemed reliable enough for reconstructions, whereas in Greece only 40 were, and not all of these from tectonically stable areas. The Israeli data includes 31 dates obtained from Dendropoma reefs in Israel. The higher reliability of the Israeli dataset may stem from a smaller coastline and more focused SL research over the past few decades. In Greece, many measurements were taken before precise surveying methods were available, and published without sufficient metadata. The two regional datasets reveal chronological gaps and disparities: Israel has a strong set of many indicators from the Roman Period (2000BP) to present, but fewer from 3000-2000BP, while Greek indicators are strongly clustered in the Classical to Hellenistic Periods (2500-2000BP). On-going research is focusing now also on the last Millennial Greek sea levels (mainly the ‘Venetian’ period). Results however suggest some correspondence and support previous Israeli conclusions suggesting somewhat lower levels around 2500BP and in the first half of the last Millennium: The Crusader period in Israel (11th to 13th century AD) and the Venetian period in Greece (12th to 15th century AD). Near-present, stable levels are indicated during most other periods, despite indications of slightly higher sea levels in the late Roman/Byzantine period.